The independent association of smoking and drinking with serum β-carotene levels among males in Miyagi, Japan

Background. Previous studies indicated that serum p-carotene levels were low among smokers and drinkers. However these findings may result from the strong relationship between smoking and drinking. Methods. Data were collected from 1902 males randomly selected from participants of a cohort study. The effects of smoking on serum β-carotene levels were assessed according to drinking status (non-drinker, ex-drinker and current drinker), and those of drinking were assessed according to smoking status (non-smoker, ex-smoker and current smoker) using general linear model including other factors (age, intake of green-yellow vegetables, intake of carrot or pumpkin, body mass index, serum cholesterol levels). Results. An inverse dose-response relationship between daily consumption of alcohol and β-carotene levels was observed regardless of smoking status, and also between number of cigarettes smoked per day and β-carotene levels regardless of drinking status. Conclusion. These results suggest that cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking reduce β-carotene levels independently.